According to Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, PIE words for material culture objects imply contact with more advanced peoples to the south, the existence of Semitic loan-words in PIE, Kartvelian (Georgian) borrowings from PIE, some contact with Sumerian, Elamite and others. [75][1], The Pontic steppe is a large area of grasslands in far Eastern Europe, located north of the Black Sea, Caucasus Mountains and Caspian Sea and including parts of eastern Ukraine, southern Russia and northwest Kazakhstan. The people of that time are best described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula. [324] Additional sites are scattered as far south as the Koppet Dag (Turkmenistan), the Pamir (Tajikistan) and the Tian Shan (Kyrgyzstan). Its also a story about human beings and religious devotion., Many anthropologists and archeologists are uneasy about the incursion of genomics into their domain and suspicious of its brash certainties. [34][82][21][91] While the consensus is that early and late PIE languages originated on the Pontic steppes, the location of the origin of archaic PIE has become the focus of renewed attention, due to the question where the CHG-component came from, and if they were the carriers of archaic PIE. Then, at fifteen thousand feet, it goes over a pass and up a series of switchbacks through scree to Roopkund. [282], The name "Illyrians", as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbors, may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of peoples, and it is today unclear to what extent they were linguistically and culturally homogeneous. Genetic analysis and new carbon dating revealed that a significant proportion of the Roopkund remains belonged to people from somewhere in the eastern Mediterranean, most likely near Crete, and that they had perished at the lake only a couple of centuries ago. [27], In her later life, Gimbutas increasingly emphasized the authoritarian nature of this transition from the egalitarian society centered on the nature/earth mother goddess (Gaia) to a patriarchy worshipping the father/sun/weather god (Zeus, Dyaus).[28]. Although the Hurrian language is non-Indo-European, yet there are certain names and words found in the texts which suggest an Indo-Aryan influence. Continue reading with a Scientific American subscription. A person who eats a diet of C3 plants, such as wheat, barley, and rice, will have isotope ratios of carbon in their bones different from those of a person eating a diet high in millets, which are C4. Armenians travelled widely in Tibet, India, and Nepal during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, trading in pearls, amber, and deer musk, a precious ingredient in perfume. Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo The "Kurgan hypothesis," as this dramatic account of the spread of the Indo-European language family during the Early Bronze Age is known, was the dominant paradigm among linguists and archaeologists during much of the 20th century. He considers the term "Kurgan culture" so imprecise as to be useless, and instead uses the core Yamnaya culture and its relationship with other cultures as points of reference. When the carbon-dating results came back, there was another surprise: there appeared to have been multiple mass-death events at Roopkund. [249] As an alternative to the model of a binary split into Slavic and Baltic, some linguists suggest that Balto-Slavic should be split into three equidistant nodes: Eastern Baltic, Western Baltic and Slavic. [163] They were considered the predominant power in Central Asia. By the late third millennium BCE, offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached Anatolia (Hittites), the Aegean (Mycenaean Greece), Western Europe, and southern Siberia (Afanasevo culture). [301][302] The similarity of some Phrygian words to Greek ones was observed by Plato in his Cratylus (410a). It is their movement which brought China into contact with the Western world as well as with India. Since the study was published, one of the most determined investigators of the mystery has been a recently retired archeologist named Stuart Fiedel, whose main research focus is the migration of Paleo-Americans into the New World from Asia. By the Middle Ages, all the Anatolian languages (and the cultures accompanying them) were extinct, although there may be lingering influences on the modern inhabitants of Anatolia, most notably Armenians.[138]. B., P. F. Kuznetsov, and A. P. Semenova. [256] Later, East Slavs (specifically, Russians and Ukrainians) colonized Siberia[257] and Central Asia. [web 18], By the early 1st millennium BC, Proto-Germanic is believed to have been spoken in the areas of present-day Denmark, southern Sweden, southern Norway and Northern Germany. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, Srubna culture in the Volga-Ural interfluvial. The (late) Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the linguistic reconstruction of a common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, as spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans after the split-off of Anatolian and Tocharian. [77][78][13][19][note 7], Marija Gimbutas formulated her Kurgan hypothesis in the 1950s, grouping together a number of related cultures at the Pontic steppes. Some furthermore claim that all Indo-European languages originated in India. Everybody in the Roopkund B population is mature. [273][274], Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of material culture. "[182] According to evolutionary geneticist Eske Willerslev, "There was a heavy reduction of Neolithic DNA in temperate Europe, and a dramatic increase of the new Yamnaya genomic component that was only marginally present in Europe prior to 3000 BC."[80]. The Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses are tentative identifications of the Urheimat, or primary homeland, of the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European language. Intense ultraviolet light shines whenever the room is empty, to destroy stray DNA. Given that the Y chromosome, found only in males, is passed down from father to son, this means that the local male line in Iberia was essentially extinguished. ", Wendy Doniger (2017): "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship. The archaeological discovery of the archives of the Hittites and the classification of the Hittite language to a separate Anatolian branch of the Indo-European languages caused a sensation among historians, forcing a re-evaluation of Near Eastern history and Indo-European linguistics. Devotees of Nanda Devi carry parasols and wear bangles on the pilgrimage. 1531 BCE per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based in Dur-Kurigalzu. Genetically, as Reich noted, the outcome was very similar: in Central and South America, large amounts of European DNA mixed into the local population, almost all of it coming from European males. [171] Anthony excludes the Globular Amphora culture.[1]. [1][2] It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). Kurgan hypothesis - Wikiwand Proto-Indo-European also exhibits lexical loans to or from Caucasian languages, particularly Proto-Northwest Caucasian and Proto-Kartvelian, which suggests a location close to the Caucasus. They might have been hanging with some major Hindu party trying to sell them stuff, Fiedel said. The bones showed no evidence of battle, ritual suicide, murder, or epidemic disease. The steppe theory was first formulated by Otto Schrader (1883) and V. Gordon Childe (1926),[3][4] then systematized in the 1950s by Marija Gimbutas, who used the term to group various prehistoric cultures, including the Yamnaya (or Pit Grave) culture and its predecessors. [134] Considering a steppe origin for archaic PIE, together with the Tocharians the Anatolians constituted the first known dispersal of Indo-European out of the Eurasian steppe. The origins of Italo-Celtic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic have often been associated with the spread of the Corded Ware horizon and the Bell Beakers, but the specifics remain unsolved. The Indo-European migrations were hypothesized migrations of Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) speakers, and subsequent migrations of people speaking derived Indo-European languages, which took place approx. Noting the absence in the Anatolian languages of the "full wagon and wheel vocabulary" found in all present-day IE-languages, and the absence of steppe-ancestry in Anatolian DNA from this time, Reich states that "this suggests to me that the most likely location of the population that first spoke an Indo-European language was south of the Caucasus Mountains, perhaps in present-day Iran or Armenia, because ancient DNA from people who lived there matches what we would expect for a source population both for the Yamnaya and for ancient Anatolians." The material on this site may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, cached or otherwise used, except with the prior written permission of Cond Nast. ", Girish Shahane (Sep 14, 2019), in response to Narasimhan et al. Carolita Johnson demonstrates how to draw wedding dresses and explains why no one invites her to weddings anymore. [111] Until ca. [247] In all these areas, the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities though there are continuing efforts at revitalization. In Eastern Europe, Slavic and Germanic peoples assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. ", "Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe. [27], Early migrations at ca. [204] Yet, according to Furholt, the Corded Ware culture was an indigenous development,[197] connecting local developments into a larger network. [259][260] Over half of Europe's territory is inhabited by Slavic-speaking communities. A major problem with Anthony's proposal is that those Yamna-migrants were R1b-carriers, which also appears in the Bell-Beaker people, while the Corded Ware people seem to have been R1a-carriers, which has not been found among Yamna-people. Celtic: kel-tik, sel", 750,000 and rising: how Polish workers have built a home in Britain, "Dacian and Thracian as Southern Baltoidic Lituanus", Eastern Michigan University Linguist List: The Illyrian Language, "Classical Armenian Online- Romanized -Introduction", "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View", "Kassitisch und Hurro-Urartisch. According to Gimbutas, contact of the Yamnaya horizon with late Neolithic Europe cultures results in the "kurganized" Globular Amphora and Baden cultures. (2015) shows that the people of the Sintashta culture are genetically related to those of the Corded Ware culture.[70]. For example, the date for the Tocharian break-off corresponds to the migration that gave rise to the Afanasievo culture; the date for the Balto-SlavicIndo-Iranian break-up may be correlated with the end of Corded Ware culture around 2100 or 2000 BC; and the date for Indo-Iranian corresponds to that of the Sintashta archaeological culture, frequently associated with Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers. [6][7][web 1][8][web 2][9], The Proto-Indo-Iranian language and culture probably emerged within the Sintashta culture (c.21001800 BCE), at the eastern border of the Abashevo culture, which in turn developed from the Corded Ware-related Fatyanovo-Balanovo culture. [181] Danish archaeologist Kristian Kristiansen said he is "increasingly convinced there must have been a kind of genocide. The Hittite empire reached its height during the mid-14th century BCE under Suppiluliuma I, when it encompassed an area that included most of Asia Minor as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. The mobility of the Kurgan culture facilitated its expansion over the entire region and is attributed to the domestication of the horse followed by the use of early chariots. Reich is insistent that race is an artificial category rather than a biological one, but maintains that substantial differences across populations exist. One is that they came with Phrygians from the west, or with the Mitanni from the east, and took over from the non-Indo-European speaking Urartians, who were previously dominant in this area. [164] The Pazyryk burials of the Ukok Plateau coincide with the apex of power of the Yuezhi, and the burials have therefore been attributed to them, which means that the Altai region was part of the Yuezhi Empire.[161]. At least four sub-cultures of the Andronovo horizon have been distinguished, during which the culture expands towards the south and the east: The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. "[] the main argument in favor of the Anatolian hypothesis (that major language change requires major migration) can now also be applied to the Steppe hypothesis. ", Mallory: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. 3400 BCE. Genetic analysis reveals Europeans descended from at least three ancient groups, West Asian in the flesh (hunter-gatherers from Georgia) (Jones et al. [135] It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan,[135] and had an elaborate trade-network reachings as far as the Indus civilisation, the Iranian plateau, and the Persian Gulf. Under sterile conditions, the scientists in Hyderabad drilled into long bones and teeth, producing a powder. Kurgan Hypothesis (Vocabulary) The theory that the first Proto-Indo-European speakers were the Kurgan people who were nomadic herders Language (Vocabulary) A system of communication through use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning Language Branch (Vocabulary) It is the main competitor to the Kurgan hypothesis, or steppe theory, which enjoys more academic favor. [316], The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. To tease the tiny fraction of human DNA from this mass of microbial debris requires a chemical ballet of enormous delicacy, and the risk of contamination is high. The term is derived from the Turkic word . The Kurgan hypothesis is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia. The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. 4000 to 1000 BCE, potentially explaining how these languages came to be spoken across a large area of Eurasia, from India and Iran, to Europe. However, several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names,[web 28] and the Kassites worshipped several Indo-Aryan gods,[347][348] suggesting that the Kassites were under significant Indo-European influence. After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, but basing their work on comparative vocabulary, a number of researchers have attempted to estimate the dates of the splitting up of the various Indo-European languages. According to Anthony, the development of the Proto-Indo-European cultures started with the introduction of cattle at the Pontic-Caspian steppes. Anthropologists and geneticists are two groups speaking different languages and getting to know each other. Research into human origins and the differences between populations is always vulnerable to misuse. It must be understood as a military victory in terms of successfully imposing a new administrative system, language, and religion upon the indigenous groups. O.K., now, who ordered the glass half empty, and who ordered the glass half full?, Its not actually that much after taxes.. [261], Modern nations and ethnic groups called by the ethnonym Slavs are considerably diverse both genetically and culturally, and relations between them even within the individual ethnic groups themselves are varied, ranging from a sense of connection to mutual feelings of hostility.[262]. 2007b. According to those who reject the Anatolian hypothesis, what language or language family were . [web 1][196] BCE) probably played an essential role in the origin and spread of the Indo-European languages in Europe during the Copper and Bronze Ages. The scientists removed tissue samples for testing, shot video, and collected bones and artifacts. He assumed (as did most scientists) that whites represented a stable lineage that had spread across western Eurasia tens of thousands of years ago and established a relatively homogeneous population. [176][70][177], During the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age, the cultures of Europe derived from Early European Farmers (EEF) were overwhelmed by successive invasions of Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the PonticCaspian steppe, who carried about 60% Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) and 40% Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer (CHG) admixture. In the early Middle Ages their territory was occupied by migrating Slavic people, and by east Asian steppe peoples. [332], Parpola postulates a first wave of immigration from as early as 1900 BCE, corresponding to the Cemetery H culture and the Copper Hoard culture, c.q. [173] Pre-Germanic dialects may have developed between the Dniestr (west Ukraine) and the Vistula (Poland) at c.31002800 BCE, and spread with the Corded Ware culture. [19] The first strong archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from the Sredny Stog culture north of the Azov Sea in Ukraine, and would correspond to an early PIE or pre-PIE nucleus of the 5thmillenniumBC. The Globular Amphora culture stretched from central Europe to the Baltic sea, and emerged from the Funnelbeaker culture. [web 25] The horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time. [226][227] In particular various authors, like Marija Gimbutas, had noted important similarities between Proto-Villanova, the South-German Urnfield culture of Bavaria-Upper Austria[228] and Middle-Danube Urnfield culture. Besides, no trade goods or beasts of burden were found with the bodies. The Kurgan Theory is based on ideas developed by the Anglo-Australian Marxist Vere Gordon Childe (1892-1957) and feminist Marija Gimbutas (1921-94) who, despite their undeniable expertise as archologists, actually created more confusion than solved problems in their field of ancient history. The northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the Taiga. Her view, known as the Kurgan hypothesisnamed for the distinctive burial mounds that spread west across Europeis now the most widely accepted theory about Indo-European linguistic origins. [82] According to Anthony, hunting-fishing camps from the lower Volga, dated 62004500 BCE, could be the remains of people who contributed the CHG-component, similar to the Hotu cave, migrating from northwestern Iran or Azerbaijan via the western Caspian coast. Indo-European migrations - Wikipedia Alexander left behind commanders and soldiers in some of the territories he conquered, many of whom stayed. The most popular hypothesis for the origin and spread of the language is the Kurgan hypothesis, which postulates an origin in the Pontic-Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe. [131] According to Anthony, if it separated from Proto-Indo-European, it likely did so between 4500 and 3500 BCE. [75] According to Cunliffe, most of the expansion was clearly intrusive. (2020), R1b-M269 "is the major lineage associated with the arrival of Steppe ancestry in western Europe after 2500 BC[E],"[187] and is strongly related to the Bell Beaker expansion. A number of alternative theories have been proposed, most notably the Anatolian hypothesis and the Armenian hypothesis. Kurgan hypothesis - archeos.eu 74, Guests in the House; cultural transmission between Slavs and Scandinavians. ", According to Damgaard et al. [web 23] The Dacians and Getae were always considered as Thracians by the ancients (Dio Cassius, Trogus Pompeius, Appian, Strabo and Pliny the Elder), and were both said to speak the same Thracian language. Explore our digital archive back to 1845, including articles by more than 150 Nobel Prize winners. Did everyone die in hailstorms? Over time this area was expanded to include and a strip of land on the North European plain stretching from Flanders to the Vistula. Bilingual Speaking two languages Monolingual Speaking one language Multilinguality speaking more than two languages Syncretism In contrast, the Anatolian . [19] Subsequent expansion beyond the steppes led to hybrid, or in Gimbutas's terms "kurganized" cultures, such as the Globular Amphora culture to the west. Recent genetic findings confirm this hypothesis but also raise questions about how the prehistoric language evolved and spread. As the villagers tell it, long ago Nanda Devi left her home to visit a distant kingdom, where she was treated discourteously by the king and queen. Reich and Harney reject Fiedels genetic interpretation. Now a professor at Heidelberg University, he stumbled upon a reference to the lake and the bodies as an undergraduate, in the nineteen-seventies, and was fascinated. Could Roopkund B have come from an unsampled population in India descended from Greeks or a related group? These migrations provide a plausible explanation for the spread of at least some of the Indo-European languages, and suggest that the alternative Anatolian hypothesis, which places the Proto-Indo-European homeland in Neolithic Anatolia, is less likely to be correct.[6][7][8][9][10]. [1] David Anthony has incorporated recent developments in his "revised steppe theory", which also supports a steppe origin of the Indo-European languages. (2015), "the Yamnaya steppe herders of this time were descended not only from the preceding eastern European hunter-gatherers, but from a population of Near Eastern ancestry. Anatolian hypothesis - Wikipedia [342], The Kassite language was not Indo-European. (She has since taken a job as a postdoctoral researcher at the genomics firm 23andMe.) [347][348] The reign of the Kassites laid the essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture. [web 6] [needs update]. [127][128][129][130][131] The Anatolians' earliest linguistic and historical attestation are as names mentioned in Assyrian mercantile texts from 19th-century BCE Kanesh. The Celts (/klts/, occasionally /slts/, see pronunciation of Celtic) or Kelts were an ethnolinguistic group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Medieval Europe who spoke Celtic languages and had a similar culture,[238] although the relationship between the ethnic, linguistic and cultural elements remains uncertain and controversial. [131], Damgaard et al. [275], Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. Myth of the light pigmented "Nordic looking" Proto Indo-Europeans debunked. They brought with them a language that is the root of many of those spoken todayincluding English, Spanish, Hindi, Russian and Persian. The name derives from the village of Andronovo (.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}5553N 5542E / 55.883N 55.700E / 55.883; 55.700), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave,[313] and took place in the third stage of the Indo-European migrations[2] from 800 BCE onwards. [323] In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, and Federovo style pottery is found as far west as Volgograd. "[208], The Bell Beaker-culture (c. 29001800 BCE[210][211]) may be ancestral to proto-Celtic,[212] which spread westward from the Alpine regions and formed a "North-west Indo-European" Sprachbund with Italic, Germanic and Balto-Slavic. These were not the remains of a lost army: the bones were from men, women, and children. Brixhe, Cl. [8], A recent analysis by Anthony (2019) also suggests a genetic origin of proto-Indo-Europeans (of the Yamnaya culture) in the Eastern European steppe north of the Caucasus, deriving from a mixture of Eastern European Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs) and hunter-gatherers from the Caucasus (CHGs). (2018) note that "[a]mong comparative linguists, a Balkan route for the introduction of Anatolian IE is generally considered more likely than a passage through the Caucasus, due, for example, to greater Anatolian IE presence and language diversity in the west. The Anatolian languages have also spurred a major re-evaluation of theories concerning the development of various shared Indo-European language features and the extent to which these features were present in PIE itself. Knowledge awaits. The Tocharians, or "Tokharians" (/tkrinz/ or /tkrinz/) were inhabitants of medieval oasis city-states on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). I never heard a word, not a hint of a story, no folktale or anything, Sax told me. (2015) state that "the Armenian plateau hypothesis gains in plausibility" given the Near Eastern ancestry in Yamnaya, but also state that "the question of what languages were spoken" by the ancestral steppe hunter-gatherers and the southern ancestors "remains open. [web 17] Pre-Germanic may have been related to the Slavo-Baltic and Indo-Iranian languages, but reoriented towards the Italo-Celtic languages. "[21][subnote 1], Proto-Finno-Ugric and PIE have a lexicon in common, generally related to trade, such as words for "price" and "draw, lead". Having so far sequenced the DNA of more than ten thousand long-dead individuals from all over the globe, the lab is almost halfway through a five-year project to create an atlas of human migration and diversity, allowing us to peer deep into our past. [2] The Iranian languages spread back throughout the steppes with the Scyths, and into Ancient Iran with the Medes, Parthians and Persians from c.800 BCE.[2]. [110] According to Vasiliev, the Khvalynsk and Sredny Stog cultures show strong similarities, suggesting "a broad Sredny Stog-Khvalynsk horizon embracing the entire Pontic-Caspian during the Eneolithic. Invasion versus diffusion scenarios (1980s onward), Alignment with Anatolian hypothesis (2000s), harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAnthony1986 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAnthony1991 (, The New Encyclopdia Britannica, 15th edition, 22:587588, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMallory1991 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFCavalli-Sforza2000 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPiazzaCavalli-Sforza2006 (, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia", "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians", "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", "An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers", "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years", "The Indo-Europeanization of Europe: the intrusion of steppe pastoralists from south Russia and the transformation of Old Europe", "The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives", Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstmme, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurgan_hypothesis&oldid=1149228162, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2021, Articles containing Russian-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, 40003500: The Pit Grave culture (a.k.a.

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